Parasocial Relationships

One-sided relationships where individuals become attached to media personalities as if they are engaged in reciprocal friendship
Anneliese Frolow 2026-09-04

Explication

The term parasocial relationship (PSR) was first coined by Donald Horton and R. Richard Wohl in their article, “Mass Communication and Para-Social Interaction”, in 1956. Horton and Wohl observed that, with the rise of new mass media such as the radio, television, and the movies, a new kind of social phenomenon emerged: a relationship between the spectator and the performer (215). This relationship is based on the “emotional investment, interest, and time of just one party” (Nguyen et al.). However, this relationship is of a one-sided nature due to the performer not knowing the spectator exists, even if they speaks directly to the audience or adjusts their performance according to supposed audience reactions (Horton and Wohl 215). This adjustment to the audience’s reactions can be seen in today’s media and summed up under the term ‘affective labor’, which is the emotional work performed by actors or content creators in order to establish a connection between them and the spectator; this connection is often also monetized. 

Over the course of time, other aspects and media have been added to the concept of parasocial relationships, such as the concept of Parasocial Interactions (PSI). While Horton and Wohl mention this term, their definition of the concept blurs the lines between the two concepts. As a recent work by Sheng, Kostyk, and Chatzipanagiotou explains, the field of studies on PSI and PSR “appears fragmented and riddled with inconsistencies” (1), and the two concepts are often used interchangeably (2). Currently, the concepts are loosely differentiated through the duration of the experience. Parasocial interactions are seen as one-time occurrences, while parasocial relationships are seen as long-term relationships (Sheng et al. 1). Additionally, parasocial relationships are defined as the consequence of continuing parasocial interactions (Mohn). 

The most common type of parasocial relationships is formed between a celebrity and a fan, but such relationships can also be formed with fictional characters and between brands and customers. With the emergence of social media and the hype around different types of videos games and streaming platforms, the opportunities for parasocial relationships to be formed have increased. Nguyen et al. distinguish between two types of PSR: PSR-P for performers and PSR-C for fictional characters. Regarding PSR-C, readers and viewers are able to form and influence narratives within the fandom through the creation of fanart, fanfiction, interactive fiction, and participatory narrative. This includes digital narratives as well as closed works such as novels because readers can also form a PSR-C with novel characters due to the different interpretations of the characters within the fandom and the aforementioned sharing of fanart and fanfiction (Nguyen et al.). 

Parasocial relationships and the intensity of such relationships, which depends on the individual (Nguyen et al.), can have both beneficiary and debilitating effects on a person in PSR (Hoffner and Bond). The benefits of PSR include increased awareness of health issues, reduction in stigma related to health conditions, companionship, support, inspiration for self-development, identity exploration, and reduction of prejudices towards minorities (Hoffner and Bond). On the other hand are the negative consequences of PSR, such as engagement in risky behaviours, depression, or body dissatisfaction because of social comparisons and the adoption of negative messages through media figures (Hoffner and Bond).

See Also

• Fanfiction - Genre of writing, often published and shared in online communities, where fans create new stories based on characters, settings, or plots from existing works
• Interactive Fiction - Born-digital electronic literature where users navigate narrative and ludic elements by inputting textual commands or making choices
• Participatory Narrative - Form of storytelling that actively involves the audience in the creation or progression of the narrative, often facilitated by digital platforms that enable collaboration and interaction

Works Referenced

Horton, Donald, and R. Richard Wohl. “Mass Communication and Para‑Social Interaction: Observations on Intimacy at a Distance.” Psychiatry, vol. 19, no. 3, 1956, pp. 215–229, doi:10.1080/00332747.1956.11023049. 

Mohn, Elizabeth. “Parasocial Interactions.” EBSCO, https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/communication-and-mass-media/parasocial-interactions. Accessed 15 Jan.  2026. 

Sheng, X., et al. “From Parasocial Interaction to Parasocial Relationship: A Review and Research Agenda.” International Journal of Consumer Studies, 2025, pp. 1–32, doi:10.1111/ijcs.70038. 

Nguyen, Trisha M., Mohammed Khadadeh, and David C. Jeong. “Shippers and Kinnies: Re‑conceptualizing Parasocial Relationships with Fictional Characters in Contemporary Fandom.” Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on the Foundations of Digital Games, 2023. 

Hoffner, Cynthia A., and Bradley J. Bond. “Parasocial Relationships, Social Media, and Well‑Being.” Current Opinion in Psychology, vol. 45, 2022, article 101306, doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2022.101306.

Further Reading

Hu, M., et al. “But They Are Back Again, Just Like a Long‑Lost Friend: Parasocial Relationship, Nostalgia of Favorite Childhood Media Character, and Emotions.” Communication Reports, 2025, pp. 1–18, doi:10.1080/08934215.2025.2572582. 

Jahng, M. R. “Watching the Rich and Famous: The Cultivation Effect of Reality Television Shows and the Mediating Role of Parasocial Experiences.” Media Practice and Education, vol. 20, no. 4, 2019, pp. 319–333, doi:10.1080/25741136.2018.1556544. 

Leite, F. P., and P. de P. Baptista. “The Effects of Social Media Influencers’ Self‑Disclosure on Behavioral Intentions: The Role of Source Credibility, Parasocial Relationships, and Brand Trust.” Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice, vol. 30, no. 3, 2021, pp. 295–311, doi:10.1080/10696679.2021.1935275. 

Soares, R., et al. “How Does Credibility Matter? Proposing and Validating a Framework for the Credibility of Live Streamers in the Gaming Industry.” Services Marketing Quarterly, vol. 45, no. 1, 2023, pp. 83–104, doi:10.1080/15332969.2023.2298609. 

Suprapto, Suprapt, et al. “From Illusion to Reality: The Sociological Impact of Parasocial and Trans‑Parasocial Interactions in K‑Pop Fan Communities.” Journal of Asian Sociology, vol. 54, no. 1, 2025, pp. 1–25. 

Wiemer, E. C., J. M. Riles, and D. Tewksbury. “Artists and Attributions: How Music Platform Implementation Affects Parasocial Experiences and Support Intentions.” Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, vol. 66, no. 2, 2022, pp. 300–319, doi:10.1080/08838151.2022.2086550.

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